Since the mid-1990s, people have been doing less and less walking or bicycling to work and school and spending a lot more time staring at screens. RainStar/E+ via Getty Images
Worldwide sales of fitness trackers increased from US$14 billion in 2017 to over $36 billion in 2020. The skyrocketing success of these gadgets suggests that more people than ever see some value in keeping tabs on the number of steps they take, flights of stairs they climb, time they spend sitting and calories they burn.
The manufacturers of these devices certainly want consumers to believe that tracking fitness or health-related behaviors will spur them on to increase their activity levels and make them healthier.
Our analysis of research published over the past 25 years suggests otherwise.
We are professors of kinesiology – the science of human body movement – at Boise State, the University of Tennessee and the University of North Florida. To learn whether and how physical activity has changed in the years since fitness trackers became popular, we analyzed more than two decades of research from several industrialized nations – all conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic.
Our systematic review of data from eight developed nations around the world shows that despite the surge in sales of fitness trackers, physical activity declined from 1995 to 2017. What’s more, we discovered that this was not an isolated effect in one or two countries, but a widespread trend.
Reviewing the research
To conduct the study, we first searched for published research that tracked physical activity such as walking, household activities or playing sports throughout the day. We wanted studies that obtained two “snapshots” of daily activity from a population, with the measurements separated by at least one year.
We found 16 studies from eight different countries that met these criteria: Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Greece, Japan, Norway, Sweden and the United States. The studies were conducted between 1995 and 2017.
It is important to note that these snapshots did not track specific individuals. Rather, they tracked samples of people from the same age group. For example, one Japanese study of physical activity among adults ages 20 to 90 collected data each year for 22 years from people in each age group.
Scientists tracked the participants’ physical activity using a variety of wearable devices, from simple pedometers – step counters – to more sophisticated activity monitors like accelerometers.
The study groups ranged from large, nationally representative samples numbering tens of thousands of people to small samples of several hundred students from a few local schools.
After identifying the research studies, we calculated an “effect size” for each study. The effect size is a method of adjusting the data to allow for an “apples-to-apples” comparison. To calculate the effect size, we used the data reported in the studies. These include the average physical activity at the beginning and end of each study, the sample size and a measure of the variability in physical activity. Using a technique called meta-analysis, this allowed us to combine the results of all studies to come up with an overall trend.
We discovered that overall, researchers documented fairly consistent declines in physical activity, with similar decreases in each geographical region and in both sexes. Overall the decrease in physical activity per person was over 1,100 steps per day between 1995 and 2017.
Our most striking finding was how sharply physical activity declined among adolescents ages 11 to 19 years – by roughly 30% – in the span of a single generation. For instance, when we compared the studies reporting physical activity in steps per day, we found the total steps per day per decade declined by an average of 608 steps per day in adults, 823 steps per day in children and 1,497 steps per day in adolescents.
Our study doesn’t address why physical activity has declined over the past 25 years. However, the studies we reviewed mentioned some contributing factors.
More staring at screens, less walking or bicycling
Among adolescents, declines in physical activity were associated with increases in ownership and use of smartphones, tablets, video games and social media.
At school, most of the physical activity that adolescents perform has traditionally come from physical education classes. However, the changes in the frequency of physical education classes during the study period are inconsistent and vary from country to country.
All of these factors may help to explain the decline in physical activity that we observed in our study.
In addition, fewer adults and children are walking or bicycling to school or work than 25 years ago. For instance, in the late 1960s, most U.S. children ages 5 to 14 rode a bicycle or walked to school. Since then, this “active transportation” has largely been replaced by automobile trips. Rates of travel by school bus or public transportation have seen little change.
So why use a fitness tracker?
So if levels of physical activity have dropped at the same time that the popularity of fitness tracking has grown, what makes these gadgets useful?
Fitness trackers can help to increase people’s awareness of their daily physical activity. However, these devices are only part of the solution to addressing the problem of sedentary lifestyles. They are facilitators, rather than drivers, of behavior change.
When a person’s physical activity goes down, it opens the door to overall reduced fitness levels and other health problems such as obesity or diabetes. On the other hand, physical activity has a dramatic positive impact on health and well-being. The first step to increasing active movement is to measure it, which these devices can do. But successfully increasing one’s overall physical activity requires several additional factors such as goal setting, self-monitoring, positive feedback and social support.
___
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Over 150,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.Sign up today.
___
Research shows a boom in fitness trackers isn’t leading to a boom in physical activity
A licensed and credentialed trainer can design a personalized program and teach you proper form and technique. Get referrals from local gyms, and many trainers now offer virtual workouts. After you learn the basics, you can work out on your own.
A licensed and credentialed trainer can design a personalized program and teach you proper form and technique. Get referrals from local gyms, and many trainers now offer virtual workouts. After you learn the basics, you can work out on your own.
Training with free weights, like dumbbells, kettlebells and barbells, is often better for muscle building than machines, Shawn Pedicini, a physical therapist at Harvard-affiliated Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, says. “However, machines are ideal if you have balancing issues or other limitations that make it safer to sit during weight training,” he says. You can also go back and forth between free weights and machines depending on the type of exercise and which muscles you are working on.
Training with free weights, like dumbbells, kettlebells and barbells, is often better for muscle building than machines, Shawn Pedicini, a physical therapist at Harvard-affiliated Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, says. “However, machines are ideal if you have balancing issues or other limitations that make it safer to sit during weight training,” he says. You can also go back and forth between free weights and machines depending on the type of exercise and which muscles you are working on.
While you need full-body workouts that address all your major muscles, older adults should pay special attention to their leg muscles: quadriceps and hamstrings (in the thighs), the gluteals (in the buttocks) and the calf muscles. “These are involved in many daily functional movements like squatting and climbing stairs,” Pedicini says. Compound exercises that work different muscles in one movement — like squats, deadlifts and lunges — are great for building leg muscles.
While you need full-body workouts that address all your major muscles, older adults should pay special attention to their leg muscles: quadriceps and hamstrings (in the thighs), the gluteals (in the buttocks) and the calf muscles. “These are involved in many daily functional movements like squatting and climbing stairs,” Pedicini says. Compound exercises that work different muscles in one movement — like squats, deadlifts and lunges — are great for building leg muscles.
Pedicini says fewer reps with heavier weights helps you gain the most muscle. “An ideal routine would be eight repetitions for each exercise for three sets total.” But you can adjust this as needed. “People with movement issues might need to use lighter weights and do more repetitions.”
Pedicini says fewer reps with heavier weights helps you gain the most muscle. “An ideal routine would be eight repetitions for each exercise for three sets total.” But you can adjust this as needed. “People with movement issues might need to use lighter weights and do more repetitions.”
Lifting should be done at a seven-second tempo. That means three seconds to lift the weight, a one-second pause and three seconds to lower it. If you can’t lift the weight at least eight times, use a lighter weight. When you can comfortably perform eight reps without completely tiring the muscle, increase the weight. “Muscles grow stronger only if you keep adding resistance,” Pedicini says.
Lifting should be done at a seven-second tempo. That means three seconds to lift the weight, a one-second pause and three seconds to lower it. If you can’t lift the weight at least eight times, use a lighter weight. When you can comfortably perform eight reps without completely tiring the muscle, increase the weight. “Muscles grow stronger only if you keep adding resistance,” Pedicini says.
Ideally, you should do weight training at least twice a week. “Two days of full-body training can produce measurable changes in muscle strength,” Pedicini says. You often can feel results after four to six weeks of consistent training.
Ideally, you should do weight training at least twice a week. “Two days of full-body training can produce measurable changes in muscle strength,” Pedicini says. You often can feel results after four to six weeks of consistent training.
Always allow at least 48 hours between sessions for muscle recovery. Some people prefer to break their workouts into two parts: upper body and lower body. In that case, you can perform upper-body exercises one day and lower-body the next.
Always allow at least 48 hours between sessions for muscle recovery. Some people prefer to break their workouts into two parts: upper body and lower body. In that case, you can perform upper-body exercises one day and lower-body the next.
Use enough weight so that the last few reps of a lifting routine are challenging.
“Don’t forget to consistently challenge yourself as you progress,” Pedicini says. “It’s necessary to gain the muscle and strength changes you want and need.”
Use enough weight so that the last few reps of a lifting routine are challenging.
“Don’t forget to consistently challenge yourself as you progress,” Pedicini says. “It’s necessary to gain the muscle and strength changes you want and need.”
Research shows a boom in fitness trackers isn’t leading to a boom in physical activity
Shutterstock
Photo Credit: insta_photos / ShutterstockAs COVID-19 cases decline again, many public health restrictions are lifted, and more of life returns to normal, one interesting question for the months and years ahead is how the pandemic will permanently affect people’s habits and lifestyle.One example is fitness and physical activity. With many gyms, pools, and other recreational facilities closed or operating at limited capacity in 2020, the early COVID-19 pandemic raised concerns that lockdowns would decrease levels of physical activity. One study conducted early in the pandemic found that overall physical activity for adults was significantly lower than prior to the pandemic. Meanwhile, many at-home fitness products and services that boomed during the pandemic now face an uncertain future; while some consumers may be returning to their old gyms, others may simply be losing interest.The questions of whether and how much people are exercising post-pandemic are important because maintaining adequate levels of physical activity is a key component of individual and public health. Experts have identified a number of benefits associated with a physically active lifestyle, including reduced blood pressure, improved mood and energy levels, and better sleep. Physically active people are at lower risk for heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and even some types of cancers. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) found that a lack of physical activity contributes to 10% of all premature deaths in the U.S.
Shutterstock
Photo Credit: insta_photos / ShutterstockAs COVID-19 cases decline again, many public health restrictions are lifted, and more of life returns to normal, one interesting question for the months and years ahead is how the pandemic will permanently affect people’s habits and lifestyle.One example is fitness and physical activity. With many gyms, pools, and other recreational facilities closed or operating at limited capacity in 2020, the early COVID-19 pandemic raised concerns that lockdowns would decrease levels of physical activity. One study conducted early in the pandemic found that overall physical activity for adults was significantly lower than prior to the pandemic. Meanwhile, many at-home fitness products and services that boomed during the pandemic now face an uncertain future; while some consumers may be returning to their old gyms, others may simply be losing interest.The questions of whether and how much people are exercising post-pandemic are important because maintaining adequate levels of physical activity is a key component of individual and public health. Experts have identified a number of benefits associated with a physically active lifestyle, including reduced blood pressure, improved mood and energy levels, and better sleep. Physically active people are at lower risk for heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and even some types of cancers. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) found that a lack of physical activity contributes to 10% of all premature deaths in the U.S.
Research shows a boom in fitness trackers isn’t leading to a boom in physical activity
Additional data from the CDC appears to confirm how physical activity is associated with a reduction in other potential health risks. According to CDC data, the share of adults in each city who report being physically active has negative correlations with the share of adults reporting chronic health problems like obesity, diabetes, and high cholesterol. There are strong negative correlations for the incidences of obesity and diabetes, while the incidence of high cholesterol shows a more moderate relationship.
Additional data from the CDC appears to confirm how physical activity is associated with a reduction in other potential health risks. According to CDC data, the share of adults in each city who report being physically active has negative correlations with the share of adults reporting chronic health problems like obesity, diabetes, and high cholesterol. There are strong negative correlations for the incidences of obesity and diabetes, while the incidence of high cholesterol shows a more moderate relationship.
Research shows a boom in fitness trackers isn’t leading to a boom in physical activity
The share of adults who report engaging in physical activity also varies widely across states, with highly active states found in several regions of the country. Leading states for physically active adults include Colorado (80.9%), Washington (80.6%), Minnesota, (80.3%), and Vermont (79.8%). In contrast, states in the South show lower levels of physical activity. Southern locations like Mississippi (61.2%), Oklahoma (65%), Kentucky (66.6%), and Louisiana (67.5%) report the lowest levels of activity among their residents. While many of the most active states have excellent natural resources suited to active outdoor lifestyles, a more likely explanation is each state’s income levels. Research has found a correlation between higher levels of income and physical activity, and many top states have higher typical incomes than their less active peers. At the local level, many of the most active cities are found in these same active states, including metros like Seattle, Denver, and Minneapolis.The data used in this analysis is from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s PLACES: Local Data for Better Health. To determine the most physically active locations, researchers at ChamberOfCommerce.org calculated the share of adults who self-reported engaging in leisure-time physical activity such as running, calisthenics, golf, gardening, or walking for exercise. For context, researchers also included statistics on obesity, high cholesterol, diabetes, and depression.Here are the most physically active cities.
The share of adults who report engaging in physical activity also varies widely across states, with highly active states found in several regions of the country. Leading states for physically active adults include Colorado (80.9%), Washington (80.6%), Minnesota, (80.3%), and Vermont (79.8%). In contrast, states in the South show lower levels of physical activity. Southern locations like Mississippi (61.2%), Oklahoma (65%), Kentucky (66.6%), and Louisiana (67.5%) report the lowest levels of activity among their residents. While many of the most active states have excellent natural resources suited to active outdoor lifestyles, a more likely explanation is each state’s income levels. Research has found a correlation between higher levels of income and physical activity, and many top states have higher typical incomes than their less active peers. At the local level, many of the most active cities are found in these same active states, including metros like Seattle, Denver, and Minneapolis.The data used in this analysis is from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s PLACES: Local Data for Better Health. To determine the most physically active locations, researchers at ChamberOfCommerce.org calculated the share of adults who self-reported engaging in leisure-time physical activity such as running, calisthenics, golf, gardening, or walking for exercise. For context, researchers also included statistics on obesity, high cholesterol, diabetes, and depression.Here are the most physically active cities.
Since the mid-1990s, people have been doing less and less walking or bicycling to work and school and spending a lot more time staring at screens. RainStar/E+ via Getty Images